# Form _Our expectations of the written word are governed by form and genre: the literary rules, conventions, and structures that enable effective communication._ ## Structure Text may be organised according to a host of different principles, many of which are obscured by translation. We must develop an awareness of these structures as they shape how we interpret the Bible text. A good commentary or study Bible can help to identify literary forms which do not easily translate into a target language. ### Acrostic A simple example of structure is an _acrostic_, where the first word of each clause, paragraph, or line spells out the letters of the alphabet. An English example would be: - **A**pples are green, - **B**ananas are yellow, - **C**herries are red, but - **D**olphins don't eat any of these Acrostic poems appear in Psalms, Proverbs, and Lamentations[^1]. Perhaps the clearest example is Psalm 119 which has sections dedicated to each of the 22 letters of the Hebrew alphabet, where the first word of each line of the section starts with the same letter[^2]. Awareness of these structures helps us to interpret. We can easily find the start and end of an acrostic to identify its themes, and we know that some word selection is driven by artistic style rather than conveying meaning. We begin to think about the implications of the artistic choice, rather than the words themselves. ### Wordplay Micah chapter 1 makes extensive use of wordplay. In verses 10-15 the names of towns are taken and creatively manipulated to form an omen against them[^micah]: | Town | Wordplay | Omen | |-----------|---------------------------|-----------------------------------------| | Shaphir | "Beautiful": _Fairtown_ | Instead of beauty, nakedness and shame. | | Zaanan | "Go out": _Leavetown_ | Do not come forth. | | Jerusalem | "Shalom": _City of peace_ | Disaster befalls them. | | Moresheth | "Betrothed": _Wedville_ | Given a "goodbye" parting wedding gift. | | Achzib | "Deceitful": _Lietown_ | Will be a deception to the nation. | | Mareshah | "Possessor": _Owntown_ | Will be a conquered and owned. | Without an awareness of this amusing play on words the foretold punishments seem arbitrary. They could be misread as specific predictions of future events, rather than personalised warnings of a general invasion. Literal translations are poorly suited to conveying these meanings, and pose a considerable challenge to translators seeking a more thought-for-thought equivalent in a target language. ### Chiasmus A _"chiasmus"_[^3] is a text with a balanced symmetrical structure, inverting a series of thoughts using repetition or contrast. Hebrew poetry makes particular use of chiastic structure, such as this example from Psalm 90:1-2: - **A** _O Lord you have been a dwelling place for us_ - **B** _from generation to generation_ - **C** _before the mountains_ - **D** _were born and_ - **D'** _you gave birth to_ - **C'** _the earth and the world_ - **B'** _from eternity to eternity_ - **A'** _You are God_ Letters and indents are used to emphasise structure: in the example above, part `A` is counterbalanced by `A'`. Chiasmus are popular literary devices and are not limited to the Bible. These inverted structures can be found at larger scales across whole Bible books, and on a smaller scale across a few verses. The narrative of _[[Noah's flood chiasm|Noah's flood]]_ is one example, alongside the entire book of Philippians. Jesus also makes use of them: > [!bible] > "No one can serve two masters; for a slave will either hate the one and love the other, or be devoted to the one and despise the other. You cannot serve God and wealth." &mdash; Matthew 6:24 (NRSV) Although poetry and rhyme may be obscured by translation it is often possible to identify chiasmus in a translated text (a good commentary will also highlight where these exist). This can be a useful exercise because these structures help us to identify emphasis: 1. At centre of the chiasm (where one exists) 2. By contrast 3. By repetition It is also important to remember that passages leveraging chiasmus prioritise beauty, emphasis, or easy recollection more than they prioritise the recording of sequential historical events. ### Formulae Structure can sometimes be marked by common phrases which frame a message, a technique often used in prophetic literature. These phrases are called formulae. | Type | Text | Example | | :------------------ | :----------------------------------------- | :-------: | | Citation Formula | _Thus says the Lord..._ | Zec 8:2 | | Recognition Formula | _...and they will know that I am the Lord_ | Eze 38:23 | | Challenge Formula | _I am against you, O..._ | Nah 2:13 | | Oath Formula | _As I live says the Lord..._ | Isa 49:18 | | Signatory Formula | _...declares the Lord_ | Jer 23:1 | | Hearing Formula | _He who has ears to hear, let him hear._ | Luk 8:8 | Formulae may mark the start or end of a message, helping to identify a section of text for study. Each section may have further structure, such as the "because... therefore..." clauses of Ezekiel's Oracles[^4], or section breaks like "For all this his anger has not turned away; his hand is stretched out still."[^5] or "For three sins of Israel, even for four..."[^6]. ### Parallelism Hebrew poetry frequently leverages parallelism, in which a statement is coupled with a parallel which complements or contrasts the other. This effect is perhaps clearest in Proverbs where each verse is formed of two halves. > [!bible] > "Whoever loves discipline loves knowledge, but those who hate to be rebuked are stupid." &mdash; Proverbs 12:1 (NRSV) Here, love of discipline and rebuke are presented as the key to developing knowledge. Parallelism also occurs on a larger scale in the book of Ezekiel, and is sometimes called "halving". Each half is called a "panel". As an example, the Gog Oracle of Ezekiel chapters 38 and 39 describes the final battle of good and evil, using formulae to structure two parallel panels. This style paints a vivid, powerful picture but can also be confusing. As the Tyndale Commentary puts it: > [!quote] > "It is fond of repetition and delights to revert to previous statements and enlarge on them, even though the result is to destroy all sense of consecutive arrangement." &mdash; Tyndale Bible Commentary (on Ezekiel 39:1-16) The book of Ezekiel can be understood as a book of two halves. In the first half the glory of God is seen departing from Israel, with an increasingly negative evaluation of the people. Around chapter 24 this inverts, and the remainder of the book paints a more positive picture, culminating in a restored people, land, king, and Temple. {% include gfx/gfx-form-ezekiel.html %} Similarly, the book of Joel is formed of two halves (1:2-2:17, 2:18-4:21) with a balanced number of words (424/425). Each half is comprised of two oracles, and each oracle is made up of two stanzas (a stanza is a series of poetic lines), with thematic progression and common structures between them.[^joel] It is important to recognise these structures with their deliberate parallels and themes, as they help us to identify the "locus of meaning" in a passage and better inform our interpretation. ### Shape Sometimes the architecture of a literary work is designed to evoke specific associations. A good example of this can be found in the Gospel of Matthew. Matthew presents Jesus as "a prophet like Moses" (Deu 18:15). He achieves this by connecting Jesus to the story of Israel: | Event | Jesus | Moses | | ----------------------------- | -------- | --------- | | Escapes persecution as a baby | Mat 2:16 | Exo 1:16 | | Comes up from land of Egypt | Mat 2:15 | Exo 12:41 | | Tempted in the wilderness | Mat 4:1 | Num 14:22 | | Teaches from high mountain | Mat 5:1 | Exo 24:12 | Matthew goes on to arrange the teachings of Jesus in five blocks, imitating the five book structure of the Pentateuch (Genesis to Deuteronomy). Each is concluded by a variation of the “Discourse conclusion formula” similar to _“when he had finished saying these things”_[^matt]. While this structure powerfully connects Jesus to Moses, a five theme organisation is achieved at the expense of chronological order. It is important to recognise that the priority of the Bible writers is not a sequential arrangement, and to adjust our own expectations of the text accordingly. ## Genre Art, music, and literature are often classified by _genre_: a literary style characterised by specific themes, motifs, and conventions. The Bible is a diverse book and contains many different genres. Our ability to recognise genre is based in our culture. For example, "noir" is a type of gritty crime fiction typically involving a protagonist embedded in a culture of corruption and uncertainty. Common tropes include the hard-nosed criminal investigator, the femme fatale, and gangsters. It would not be surprising to find the story narrated in the first person. > [!image] > ![[form-noir.jpg]] > 'In a lonely place' (1950) is a screen adaption of the 1947 book of the same name by Dorothy Hughes Identifying genre sets our expectations of the text, drawing specific elements of a narrative into focus. The bleak pessimism of noir is expected: a happy ending would be unusual. A noir novel does not contain information about: * how we should apply investigative techniques in our own lives * when the detective made the notes we're reading * why it's always raining Investigating genre is often an exercise in _comparative literature_. The conventions, themes, and motifs of ancient cultures provide insights into the literary world that the Bible's authors and audience inhabited. We use this information to challenge and refine our own expectations of the text. The following section outlines several suggested Biblical genres, their key characteristics, and provides tentative recommendations for reading them well. ### Myth In a Biblical context, _myth_ refers to those passages that share commonalities with ancient Near Eastern stories that are themselves considered mythical. These typically describe the actions of god(s) acting in a primeval age and establishing order that has a bearing on present realities.[^myth] The creation stories, "fall", and Noah's flood are examples of this genre. All find parallels in ancient Near Eastern texts, describing cosmic origins (a _cosmonogy_) with motifs of an ancient cosmic geography. Later texts refering to these same concepts may also be considered part of the myth genre (Psa 8, 19; Isa 40, 45; Jon 2). {% include image.html source="/assets/images/page/form/myth.svg" desc="A depiction of a three tier universe with a 'bubble' in which the disc of the earth floats" title="Not your father's World Atlas" caption="A composite Biblical cosmic geography" %} Many readers bring a modern scientific rationalism to these texts, and either flounder at the evident conflicts with a scientific understanding of the universe or explain away the problems with elaborate (and often inconsistent) reasoning. In addition, modern readers often hold a material philosophy of reality in which things exist by virtue of their physical properties. This stands in contrast to a philosophy of "order versus chaos", in which existence is defined by assigning purpose. To "read these texts well" it is important to: - Recognise that the ancients did not distinguish between "natural" and "supernatural" - Focus on the presentation of divine/human relations and the resulting worldview - Consider the polemical value of Biblical myths as a response or critique of other ancient contemporary myths Finally, it is useful to note that the present form of these passages of scripture are often dated to the period of the Assyrian invasion and Babylonian exile, indicating that they were composed from earlier works during a period of cultural conflict where alternative national origin myths were prevalent.[^jedp] ### Conquest Ancient Conquest accounts use a common narrative framework to describe a leader's decisive victory in repetitive, exaggerated language. These features are common across Assyrian, Hittite, and Egyptian conquest accounts, and are also apparent in the Israelite conquest accounts of Joshua 9-12.[^bhc] * #### Common narrative framework A combination of genre tropes, typical statements, and key narrative elements form a familiar "transmission code" for conquest accounts. These are not verbatim statements like [formulae](#formulae): they do not occur in a rigidly fixed order, nor is every element present in every example text. | Element | Description | Example | | ---------------------- | ----------------------------------------------------- | ------------------ | | _Where and when_ | Spatial and temporal coordinates of the event | Jos 10:1, 29, 11:1 | | _Disorder_ | A non-ideal condition precipitates conflict | Jos 10:6 | | _Divine aid_ | Given as a blessing, mandate, and/or intervention | Jos 10:8, 11, 32 | | _Journey to battle_ | Troops assemble and travel to the battlefield | Jos 10:31, 11:7 | | _Fleeing and pursuit_ | Enemies are overcome despite fleeing | Jos 10:11, 11:8 | | _Exemplary punishment_ | Attention to the special fate of enemies | Jos 10:26-27, 11:9 | | _Result_ | Destruction, slaughter, and pillaging | Jos 10:20, 11:11 | | _Consequences_ | Annexation or acquisition of enemy goods or territory | Jos 11:23 | Absent from the Bible record (though somewhat typical of the genre) are the _grovelling of enemies_ and the _construction of celebratory victory monuments_. * #### Leader orientation There is a particular focus on _leadership_ in conquest accounts, with actions of the national army frequently attributed to the individual. For example, Joshua is described as: - defeating the whole land - Jos 10:40 - killing all the kings - Jos 11:17 - defeating the giants (Anakim) - Jos 11:21 - having God listen to _him_ - Jos 10:12-14 Language oriented around the leader is typical of conquest narratives. - #### Repetition Records of conquest can repeat the same words and phrases as a formulaic way of cataloguing a campaign. Note how similar the following descriptions of two different city battles are. | Libnah (Jos 10:29-30) | Lachish (Jos 10:31-32) | |-----------------------|------------------------| | Joshua passed on from Makkedah, and all Israel with him | Joshua passed on from Libnah, and all Israel with him | | to Libnah, and fought against Libnah | to Lachish, and laid siege to it, and assaulted it | | The Lord gave it also and its king into the hand of Israel | The Lord gave Lachish into the hand of Israel, and he took it on the second day | | and he struck it with the edge of the sword | and struck it with the edge of the sword | | every person in it, he left no one remaining in it | and every person in it | | and he did to its king as he had done to the king of Jericho | as he had done to Libnah | Further repetition is evident when comparing these descriptions to subsequent verses, Jos 10:34-35, 36-37, and 38-39. * #### Exaggeration Conquest accounts use hyperbole to dramatically emphasise the inevitability of the enemies' defeat. This exaggeration is particularly true of _annihilation language_. It is easy to show that annihilation language should not be taken literally as it conflicts with narrative elements later in the text. Although Joshua apparently wipes out Hebron in Jos 10:36-37, Caleb has to take the city again in Jos 15:13–14. Finally the city is contested once more by Judah after the death of Joshua (Judges 1:10). Exaggeration is also used to connect the narrative with the deeper story of Israel: > [!bible] > "They came out, with all their troops, a great army, in number _like the sand on the seashore_, with very many horses and chariots." &mdash; Joshua 11:4 (NRSV) This allusion to the promises to Abraham (Gen 22:17) ties the story to the developing fulfilment of God's promises, as told through the conquest genre. It is worth noting that the archaeological record from the early Israelite period does not support the idea of a swift conquest that obliterated the native population, as implied by a flat reading of the Joshua conquest narratives. These accounts are central to discussions of divine violence[^violence], so it is particularly important for us to read these passages with care and awareness. - Remember that the genre presents a dramatic, stylised account of events - The importance of the leader (Joshua) and his close relationship with God are paramount (e.g. Jos 10:13-14) - God is shown decisively fulfilling His promise to give Israel the land ### Wisdom Wisdom literature teaches the reader how to "live well" in the world. This is accomplished through the exploration of both ideal and improper behaviours, leading the audience to an understanding of divinely favoured conduct and living a virtuous life.[^bpwisdom] In the Bible, the books of _Proverbs_, _Ecclesiastes_, _Job_, and _Song of Songs_ are regarded as examples of wisdom literature; _Sirach_ and _Wisdom_ in the broader Catholic and Eastern Orthodox canons are also considered wisdom books. As a genre, wisdom literature is distinguished particularly by theme: 1. Emphasis on the human experience; including inequality, death, reward and punishment, and relationship to the divine. 2. Little (if any) focus on Israelite history, tradition, and ritual. Subjects such as the Law, Temple, tribes, and land are rarely mentioned. 3. Responses to divine will, particularly where this is hard to discern. Both ancient Mesopotamian and ancient Egypt produced a considerable body of wisdom literature on these subjects. Instructional wisdom literature has an affinity for structured poetic arrangements. This may have helped to internalise the principles in educational settings. In the example below, a 2+1 "tricolon" (triplet) scheme is used to structure the teaching.[^1plus2] | I Aqhat i, 113 (Ugarit) | Proverbs 10:26 (Bible) | |-------------------------|------------------------| | Like the feeling of a wild cow for her calf,<br>Like the feeling of a wild ewe for her lamb,<br>So \[was\] the feeling of Anat for Baal | As vinegar to the teeth<br>And as smoke to the eyes,<br>So is the sluggard to them that send him | Such triplet patterns are found alongside quadrain (4 lines, Pro 24:19-20), pentad (5 lines, Pro 30:15-16), and even hexad arrangements (6 lines, Pro 30:29–30). > [!quote] > "Do not control your wife in her house, > When you know she is efficient; > Don’t say to her: _'Where is it? Get it!'_ > When she has put it in the right place" > &mdash; Quadrain in the Instruction of Any, circa 1300<small>BCE</small> ### Oracle An _oracle_ is a pronouncement from God delivered by a human messenger. Oracles are highly structured, making extensive use of formulae to frame communication. Typical themes are judgement and salvation; common literary techniques include [wordplay](#wordplay), irony, and poetic justice. A good example of the genre is the Oracle against Tyre in Ezekiel 26-28. Tyre was a fortified city north of Israel which grew rich due to its location near one of the few natural harbours in the eastern Mediterranean. > [!image] > ![[form-tyre.jpg]] > Tyre, Lebanon (circa 1936). The southern part of the island sank following the 551<small>CE</small> earthquake and tsunami. A causeway built to attack the island has since joined it to the mainland. In this oracle Tyre's role as a naval and mercantile power are inverted. The city that was made rich by the seas will instead be covered by it. > [!bible] > "For thus says the Lord GOD: When I make you a city laid waste, like cities that are not inhabited, when I bring up the deep over you, and the great waters cover you" &mdash; Ezekiel 26:19 (NRSV) The prophet follows the oracle with a lament which continues the theme, picturing Tyre as a great ship (Eze 27:5-6) which became so heavily laden with goods and riches (Eze 27:25-26) that it was wrecked, and sank (Eze 27:34). To read the _oracle_ genre well: - Identify oracles through the use of the citation formula (_Thus says the Lord_), word-event formula (_The word of the Lord came to me saying..._) or similar. - Look for internal structure such as _because... therefore..._, and investigate the passage for wordplay and poetic justice. - Do not expect history to match poetry: the prophetic imagination was designed to change hearts and minds, not provide predictive proofs to a modern audience. ### Ancient Biography An ancient _bioi_ (bee-oy), or "life" is a Greek and Roman genre concerned with depicting the character of an individual. Parallels are often drawn between the _bioi_ genre and the portraits of Jesus in the Gospels. Modern biography tends to focus on the progressive development of a subject's character; describing their influences, formative moments, and motivations. The objective is to reveal their internal psyche. By contrast, ancient biography is concerned with the goals, achievements, and failures of the subject. A focus on their actions, words, and responses is designed to portray a figure to be either emulated or rejected. Each gospel paints a different portrait of Jesus, with varying themes, concerns, and structures designed to emphasise particular aspects of Jesus character to their respective audiences.[^rotam] - #### Matthew Matthew particularly portrays Jesus as the fulfillment of scripture, through the "types" of Moses as a prophet and David as a King. Early chapters of Matthew narrating Jesus' birth are sometimes described as a Jewish _Midrash_: a creative retelling of a Bible story to make a new point (midrash is a genre in its own right). In Matthew it is used to emphasise Jesus as a New Moses. This theme continues through to events like the transfiguration, where language used to describe Moses is applied to Jesus. Matthew recasts Mark's descriptions of failing disciples in a more favourable light (Mat 8:26 {% include cf.html %} Mark 4:40). He frequently doubles events from Mark, either telling them twice or doubling the number of characters. Peter is a recurring character in Matthew and was a popular character in the Judean circles of the early church. Matthew is thought to be written primarily to a Judean audience. - #### Mark Mark is widely considered to be the first gospel, written around the 60s CE; the earliest church traditions attribute authorship to Mark acting as an interpreter for Peter. The gospel particularly takes care to explain Judean customs (Mar 7:24) and enjoys adding dramatic Aramaic statements (Mar 5:41, 7:34, 14:36, 15:34), as though written to a non-Jewish audience (see for example, Mar 7:24). In Mark the narrator reveals that Jesus is Son of God, creating suspense which drives the plot by using characters who do not realise who Jesus is (Mar 9:32). This "messianic secret" creates tension, with Jesus' identity only finally made public by the centurion (a Gentile) as Jesus dies. Three main sets of characters serve as antagonists to Jesus: demons (who know Jesus' identity), the religious authorities (who do not), and the disciples (who continually fail). Jesus impending suffering is a key theme. - #### Luke Whereas Matthew and Mark cast John as the "New Elijah", Luke ascribes this Old Testament pattern to Jesus as the ideal prophet who brings the good news of salvation from illness, death, or military occupation. Both "saviour" and "gospel" (good news) were popular motifs in Luke's day, and would not be new terms to either Judean and Greco-Roman audiences. The gospel of Luke&mdash;read in combination with Acts&mdash;shows how the gospel message spreads from Jerusalem to the ends of the earth. In this sense it can also be considered an _ancient historiography_ genre, employing narrative techniques similar to the historians Thucydides, Plutarch, and particularly Josephus. They: - &mldr;are not interested in objective reporting, often make subjective claims and feel free to moralise. - &mldr;make use of prefaces explaining the context of the account, particularly in relation to other accounts. - &mldr;include speeches as generalised, creative reconstructions based on recollection. - &mldr;form an apologetic defending the validity of a group (in this case Christianity). - #### John In John, Jesus is portrayed as the son and emissary of God: the manifestation of God, sent to represent him. Jesus is shown to be the fulfillment of both Jewish festivals (particularly Passover) and the sacrificial scheme (as the Lamb of God). John is also a book of contrasts, drawing on symbolism such as heaven and earth, light and darkness. The book is organised around seven signs that reveal the identity of Jesus as son of God (sometimes called the _Book of Signs_). These seven signs can be understood as reflecting the days of creation and expanding on the opening chapter's clear allusions to Genesis chapter 1. Many of these signs are associated with Jewish festivals (John 5:1, 6:4). They are interspersed with seven "I am" sayings of Jesus. The _Book of Signs_ is followed by the _Book of Glory_, the account of Jesus' last night with his disciples, his trial, crucifixion, and resurrection. The book is designed to demonstrate to the reader that Jesus is the son of God, an authorial intent which is given explicitly in John 20:31. Recognising the gospels as Ancient Biography helps us to: - Reflect on the portraits given in each book rather than seek to harmonise events between them. - Respect genre conventions which are unlikely to satisfy modern curiosity regarding a character's inner thoughts. - See themes, people, and conflicts in the narrative as carefully selected moments designed to explore the character of the subject (in this case, Jesus). ### Letter Biblical letters are _"occasional"_, meaning they were written to address a particular occasion: to address an individual need, a community problem, or a general circumstance. It can be difficult to reconstruct the full occasion of a letter in to understand its message. While two letters to Corinth are preserved in our Bibles, there appear to have been at least four letters to that church.[^corinth] When reading the letters it is important to remember that we are "reading somebody else's mail", and there may be considerable uncertainty about the context of the message. Reconstructing the context of each letter is a valuable step in understanding the circumstances in which the letter was written, and therefore the meaning intended by the author. It is also natural to imagine letter writing in somewhat contemporary terms. For example, assuming writing to be the independent activity of a single author, at a desk in a private room, using anachronistic writing materials. > [!image] > ![[form-paul.webp]] > 'Paul Writing His Epistles' - attributed to Valentin de Boulogne, circa 1619 In practise, New Testament era letter writing was a communal activity. It was an extended, costly endeavour requiring specialist skills and materials.[^bpletters] Ancient letters tend to follow a defined order, beginning with a salutation and welcome. Paul also expresses thanksgiving for the church in each letter he writes. This is a familiar pattern that the letter to the Galatians breaks, replacing it with a condemnation. This rejection of convention elicits surprise to readers expecting the customary praise segment.[^thanks] ## Summary 1. Awareness of literary structures helps us identify meaning in a passage, though unfortunately they are easily obscured by translation. 2. The Bible contains a range of ancient literary genres which an would be recognised by their originating culture but are less accessible today. 3. By learning a little of these genres we are better able to differentiate between a literary convention and the intent of an author. Having considered the literary world of the Bible we now step back further to survey the wider social and cultural situation in which it was written. This is the topic of our next section: [[How to Bible/Context|Context]]. ## Appendix ### Bibliography - Walton, J. (2009). _The Lost World of Genesis One: Ancient Cosmology and the Origins Debate_. IVP. (Amazon [UK](https://www.amazon.co.uk/Lost-World-Genesis-One/dp/0830837043) | [US](https://www.amazon.com/Lost-World-Genesis-One/dp/0830837043), [Logos](https://www.logos.com/product/52907/the-lost-world-of-genesis-one-ancient-cosmology-and-the-origins-debate)). - Younger Jr, K. (2009). _Ancient Conquest Accounts: A Study in Ancient Near Eastern and Biblical History Writing_. Sheffield Academic Press. (Amazon [UK](https://www.amazon.co.uk/First-Biography-Jesus-Meaning-Gospel/dp/0802874606) | [US](https://www.amazon.com/First-Biography-Jesus-Meaning-Gospel/dp/0802874606), [Logos](https://www.logos.com/product/9402/ancient-conquest-accounts-a-study-in-ancient-near-eastern-and-biblical-history-writing)). - Bond, H. (2020). _The First Biography of Jesus: Genre and Meaning in Mark’s Gospel_. Eerdmans. (Amazon [UK](https://www.amazon.co.uk/Ancient-Conquest-Accounts-Biblical-Testament/dp/0567557049) | [US](https://www.amazon.com/Ancient-Conquest-Accounts-Biblical-Testament/dp/0567557049), [Logos](https://www.logos.com/product/186370/the-first-biography-of-jesus-genre-and-meaning-in-marks-gospel)). - Richards, E. (2005). _Paul and First-Century Letter Writing: Secretaries, Composition and Collection_. IVP. (Amazon [UK](https://www.amazon.co.uk/Paul-First-Century-Letter-Writing-Secretaries/dp/1844740668) | [US](https://www.amazon.com/Paul-First-Century-Letter-Writing-Secretaries/dp/0830827889), [IVP](https://www.ivpress.com/paul-and-first-century-letter-writing), [Logos](https://www.logos.com/product/32339/paul-and-first-century-letter-writing-secretaries-composition-and-collection)). ### Notes [^1]: Find acrostics in Psalms 25, 34, 37, 111, 112, 119 and 145, Proverbs 31:10-31, and Lamentations 1-4. [^2]: Some acrostics are imperfect. For example, Psalm 145's acrostic omits the letter N (Nun). The Septuagint translation however includes a verse for _"N"_, which appears to be a later corrective addition. _"Only a single Heb. manuscript has it (Cod. Kennicott 142), and that on the lower margin, at the bottom of the page."_ Lange, J. P. (2008). A commentary on the Holy Scriptures: Psalms (p. 667). Bellingham, WA. [^3]: Chiasm is a Greek word: the _"ch"_ is pronounced _"k"_, so read it as "k-eye-asm". [^4]: Ezekiel 25:3-4 [^5]: Isaiah 9-10. [^6]: Amos 2, particularly v1, 4, 6. Recognise also the use of the signatory formula throughout the chapter. [^bpletters]: Mackie, T. (Host). (July 2020). Pen, Parchment, and People (New Testament Letters, Ep 8). The Bible Project. [[Audio Podcast](https://bibleproject.com/podcast/pen-parchment-and-people)]. [^micah]: The table simplifies some of the complexity in the wordplay. It's not simply that every town name has a defined meaning, but rather that their names can be associated with other Hebrew words that the _sound like_ (homophones). The article shows a selection of accessible examples; a complete list would contain tenuous and debated connections. For more, see a good commentary such as the New Internation Commentary on the Old Testament (NICOT): Allen, L. C. (1976). The Books of Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, and Micah. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. [^joel]: Bear in mind that we're talking about Hebrew words, not English ones! Hypenated Hebrew words are counted as one in this calculation. For more, see _Pohlig, J. (2003). An Exegetical Summary of Joel (p. 10). Dallas, TX: SIL International._ [^matt]: Find these in Matthew 7:28 (end of the _Sermon on the Mount_), 11:1 (end of _Missionary Instructions_), 13:53 (end of _Parables_), 19:1 (end of _Life and Practise_), 26:1 (end of _The End Times_). [^myth]: An exploration of these definitions can be found in: Barr, J. (1959). The Meaning of "Mythology" in Relation to the Old Testament. Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 9. Brill. [[Link](http://www.jstor.org/stable/1516166)] [^jedp]: According to the [Documentary Hypothesis](/hermeneutics/text#the-documentary-hypothesis), Genesis 1's creation account is of the Priestly source ("P"), while the Genesis 2 account is of the Yahwist source ("J"). J has more points of comparison with other ancient Near Eastern myths such as _Enuma Elish_ and the _Atrahasis Epic_. [^rotam]: The following tabbed content on the gospels is summarised from the excellent _Religions of the Ancient Mediterranean_ podcast by Prof [Phil Harland](http://www.philipharland.com/Blog/religions-of-the-ancient-mediterannean-podcast-collection-page/). Particularly, the 11-episode series 2, _Early Christian Portraits of Jesus_. [^violence]: For an introduction to this subject consider: Zahnd, B. (2017). Sinners in the Hands of a Loving God: The Scandalous Truth of the Very Good News. Waterbrook Press. Brian Zahnd can be heard on [Episode 15](https://thebiblefornormalpeople.podbean.com/e/episode-15-brian-zahnd-divine-violence-in-the-bible/) of the _Bible for Normal People_ podcast. _The Bible Project_ have also [covered](https://bibleproject.com/blog/judgement-cruelty-conquering-promised-land) the [topic](https://bibleproject.com/church-at-home/making-sense-of-divine-violence/) in [some detail](https://bibleproject.com/podcast/making-sense-of-divine-violence/). [^bhc]: See BiblicalHistoricalContext.com's excellent series on [Joshua 10 and 11](https://biblicalhistoricalcontext.com/series/joshua-10-and-11/) for a deeper overview of the Ancient Conquest genre. [^bpwisdom]: _The Bible Project_ have a 3-part series on [Wisdom Literature](https://bibleproject.com/learn/wisdom-series/), covering Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Job's perspectives on how to live well in the world. [^1plus2]: Sometimes a 1+2 scheme is found, e.g. Proverbs 22:29. [^corinth]: First Corinthians refers to a "previous letter" in 1 Cor 5:9, and Second Corinthians refers to the "letter of Tears" in 2 Cor 2:3-4. The description of this letter doesn't seem much like First Corinthians, making a minimum of three, probably four letter (plus any we don't know anything at all about). [^thanks]: Thanks are found in letters to the churches in: Rom 1:8; 1 Cor 1:4; 2 Cor 1:11; Eph 1:16; Php 1:3; Col 1:3; 1Th 1:2; 2Th 1:3... But not Galatians.