# Context _Scripture was written in a specific place, at a specific time, for a specific purpose. This context enriches our understanding of the writer and their audience._ ## Types of context In his 1959 book "The Silent Language", anthropologist Edward Hall described the concepts of _high and low context cultures_. These present a useful perspective for understanding how cultural context relates to communication such as the Bible text. * #### High context In _high context_ cultures much of the communication between speaker and hearer is based on a long-term shared cognitive environment. Much information is implied rather than explicitly stated, or even communicated non-verbally. Japan, Saudi Arabia, and China are examples of high-context cultures. The Bible was also written in high-context cultures. * #### Low context _Low context_ culture and communication does not assume shared experience or concepts between speaker and hearer. Little is left to inference. Messages are shorter, written, and do not have a strong sense of group boundaries. The UK, US, and much of Europe are low-context cultures. The import of these concepts is that we often encounter high-context communications in the Bible text, where the original hearers would understand information that is counter-intuitive, easily overlooked, or even lost on readers today. This disadvantage can be somewhat offset by the modern blessing of education, literacy, and access to information afforded by advances in technology and historical investigation: today, we can Google stuff. Context can be loosely categorised by the related concepts that together describe a wider circumstance. Several different types of context impact how we interpret the Bible. ### Textual Textual context is largely explored in previous sections covering subjects such as origins, formation, translation, structure, and genre. To these topics we can also add the idea of _internal textual references_. These references may take the form of direct quotes or more general allusions, and may be the product of specific word choice, common motifs, or a repeated story arc. Many terms are used to describe these different types of internal reference, including: - Cross references[^tsk] - Bible echoes - Types - Design Patterns[^bppatterns] In the visualisation below, the 66 books of the protestant canon are linked by a data set of 63,779 cross references to produce a graphical representation of their connections. > [!image] > ![[context-biblevizarc.jpg]] > Bible Cross-References Visualisation. &copy; Chris Harrison and Christoph Römhild, from [chrisharrison.net](https://www.chrisharrison.net/index.php/Visualizations/BibleViz). Used with permission. While such representations may be critiqued in terms of data selection and order (canon, dating of text, and cross-reference data set), they do serve to illustrate the pervasive nature of internal references and the importance of reading the Bible within its own context. Understanding this gives us an idea of the author's influences and expectations. For example, the following reference is drawing on a range of ideas from Jewish cultic practise as the climax of an argument that Jesus is a new, enduring high priest. > [!bible] > "Through him, then, let us ==continually offer== a ==sacrifice of praise== to God, that is, the ==fruit of lips== that confess his name." &mdash; Hebrews 13:5 (NRSV) - _"Continually offer"_ (Num 28:3) referencing the regular burnt offering. - _"Sacrifice of praise"_ (Lev 7:12) a reference to the thank offering. - _"Fruit of lips"_ (Hos 14:2) as a response to removal of guilt. The author is not only building on Old Testament references to the sacrificial system, but also a wider body of later interpretation and practise (2Ch 29:31; Psa 106:22; Isa 57:18-19). For those unfamiliar with this context this language may be confusing, whereas those with a deep experiential understanding of Jewish tradition would be faced with a compelling and powerful argument. ### Geographic The "Seven Letters to the Churches" recorded in Revelation are best understood alongside the geographic situation and history of their respective cities. All the churches are found in Asia (modern Turkey), near the island of Patmos from where the letters were dispatched. > [!image] > ![[context-7-letters.png]] > The letters are written to a reasonably small geographic group of early Christian churches. These letters are very "high context": they include comments that are particularly relevant to residents of each city due to historical alliances, politics, or geography that are not immediately obvious to later audiences. - #### Ephesus The warning that the Ephesian "lampstand will be removed from its place" (Rev 2:5) is ironic: the whole city of Ephesus was relocated when silt from the Cayster River blocked up the harbour. - #### Smyrna The Lydians sacked Smyrna around 600<small>BCE</small>, and for several centuries the city was reduced to a defenceless village. It was rebuilt around 300<small>BCE</small>, a city which also "died and came to life" (Rev 2:8), a resurrection hope relevant to the persecuted church. A ruined acropolis of the Old City was known as the "crown of Smyrna", in contrast to the new crown promised by Jesus (Rev 2:10). - #### Pergamon Pergamon was home to the famed throne-altar of "Zeus the Saviour", the snake-motif healing cult of Asclepius, and the Temple of Augustus. The allusion to "Satan's throne" (Rev 2:13) is therefore apt, with persecution of Christians particularly likely from the imperial cult of the emperor. - #### Thyatira Thyatira's economy was driven by its merchants and craftspeople, where metallurgy and creation of bronze armour (Rev 2:18) would be a familiar sight. Craft guilds each had a patron deity, with meetings involving meals dedicated to the deity (some raucous and sexual). This made it hard for Christians to engage in economic activity without participating in idolatry. - #### Sardis The people of Sardis had a history of being taken unawares ("Coming like a thief", Rev 3:3): twice the city was conquered because of lax watchmen, and once the city was surprised by an earthquake. Similarly the "Book of Life" of Rev 3:5 plays on the city's register of citizens&mdash;in an earlier period Sardis was famous for its royal archives. - #### Philadelphia In 17<small>CE</small> the city named itself _Neocaesarea_, building a monument in Rome in response to tax breaks from Tiberius following the earthquake which destroyed Sardis. Later, it renamed itself _Flavia Philadelphia_ to honour Flavian emperors. The reward of a fixed name and monument is apt (Rev 3:12). - #### Laodicea A wealthy banking centre (c.f. Rev 3:17), Laodicea had no natural water supply despite hot springs in Hieraopolis in the north or the cold mountain water in the south. Water transported via pipe or aqueduct was lukewarm by the time it reached the city (c.f. Rev 3:16). It was noted for production of eye salve and textiles (c.f. Rev 3:18). ### Literary Some passages of scripture bear similarities to other ancient works which would have been either circulating or composed around the same time. Comparing Bible texts with these texts can sometimes highlight informative differences, and help us understand the emphasis of the author. Daniel chapter 2 describes how the Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar dreamed of a great statue formed of different metals, representing a succession of kingdoms. > [!image] > ![[context-nebs-image.svg|100]] > The image of Nebuchadnezzars dream; formed of a golden head, silver chest and arms, brass belly and thighs, iron legs, and mixed iron and clay feet. Eventually the image is destroyed by a rock that grows to fill the whole earth. The head of **gold** represented the King of Babylon, the **silver** chest and arms the Medo-Persians, **bronze** thighs the Greeks, **iron** legs the Romans, and mixed **iron and clay** subsequent nations. A rock cut without hands (i.e. by divine action) represents God's Kingdom, and strikes the image on the vulnerable feet before growing to fill the whole earth. In the 8th century BCE the Greek poet Hesiod wrote *Works and Days*, describing five ages of man correlating to gold, silver, bronze, and iron metals, and tracing a decline in moral and virtue. Connection between metals and world empires are also found in the Sibylline Oracles and two Zoroastrian texts known from later copies. Ovid also utilises Hesiod's four-metal scheme writing the Latin _Metamorphoses_ in the first century CE. Giant images are common features of ancient Near Eastern dream literature and are documented in the Babylonian Dream Book. Statues of mixed metals are known from physical or documentary evidence, though none hail from Mesopotamia. A statue with a golden head and bronze body overlaid with silver was found at Ras Shamra (modern Syria), and dated to the 2nd millennium BCE predating the book of Daniel. With this context it is easy to see the features of the dream which diverge from the ancient pattern. While a decline in civilisation is a familiar motif, in Daniel this is applied to convey a negative outlook of the kingdoms following Nebuchadnezzar. Ultimately though, God is portrayed as an interventionist who replaces the existing transient order with his own coming permanent Kingdom. ### Socio-cultural Over time, people living in social groups form shared expectations, behaviours, and conventions. These unwritten rules of community can be hard for outsiders to recognise; nevermind understand or follow. > [!quote] > "The past is a foreign country; they do things differently there." &mdash; The Go-Between, by L.P. Hartley (1953) This is particularly problematic when interacting with texts from ancient cultures that have long since passed into history. Although reconstructing their societal norms can be a daunting prospect with uncertain conclusions, experts are able to draw on archaeological evidence to piece together pictures of community life in the ancient world. While some aspects of these societies find parallels in communities today, some factors can be a surprise&mdash;particularly to the modern Western mind. - #### Patronage In Greco-Roman society a rich patron would sponsor a client, providing goods or money in return for loyalty, favours, and services. This relationship existed at a national scale between Rome and its citizens, as well as between individuals. Conflict relating to these power dynamics arises in Paul's relationships with the Corinthian and Philippian churches. He famously rejected Corinthian support (2 Cor 11:7) while accepting aid from Philippi (Phil 4:16-18), referencing "boasters" (2 Cor 11:12-13) who were seeking to gain advantage or status through patronage. These "strings attached" gifts may also be the background to comments on partaking of idol meals (1 Cor 10:20-21), where accepting meals as part of temple rituals effectively places the participant under the patronage of the god. As these relationships are less pervasive in the western world today it is easy to miss the dynamics of expectation, obligation, offense, and reputation that are being addressed in these writings. - #### Law Law and tradition shape people and behaviour in subtle ways; sometimes it is unclear whether a particular course of action described in scripture is an accommodation to such tradition, a defiance of it, or an unreserved endorsement. Roman law enforced the power of the father over the household (_Patria potestas_). Each family unit was ruled by a male Roman citizen who exercised absolute religious, judicial, and economic power over the men, women, children, and slaves who formed the unit, including the power of life and death. _New Testament Household Codes_ of Eph 5:22-6:9 and Col 3:18-4:1 describe relationships between husband and wife, parent and child, master and slave. They can be seen as subverting these relationships by placing participants on a footing of mutual respect (e.g. Gal 3:28), while accommodating the practicalities of Roman life. Early Christians faced persecution for their promotion of Jesus as a new King, presumed cannibalistic practises, and disregard of traditional gods (often linked to the fortune of a city, e.g. Acts 19:26). Household codes can be understood as as a way to live peaceably with Roman neighbours while upholding the values of the new creation in Jesus, and pragmatically resolve tensions between church and state, the new liberty in Christ and the social structures of the time (Acts 5:29 c.f. Rom 13:1). - #### Ethnicity We must be careful not to project modern stereotypes of ethnicity into the ancient world. An example of this is when Moses married a wife from _Cush_, a term used to describe dark-skinned Africans. > [!bible] > "Miriam and Aaron spoke against Moses because of the Cushite woman whom he had married (for he had indeed married a Cushite woman)" &mdash; Numbers 12:1 (NRSV) While we are not given a detailed explanation of the nature of their objection, it may be tempting to conclude that their words are based in a racist world-view which looked down on coloured people as slaves. However, it seems likely that their disproval was motivated by jealousy related to a perceived _elevation_ in status (see Num 12:2-3). Cushites were a respected warrior nation, often enemies of Egypt. For many years in Egypt the Hebrews had predominantly been slaves. It seems to fit the context that Miriam and Aaron are objecting to Moses marrying "above" his station by taking an Cushite as wife. - #### Gender and sexuality It is important not to presume that our conceptions of gender are shared with the people we read about in the Bible. Today, we have very different categories to describe gender and sexuality. In Mat 19:12 Jesus comments on the traditional family unit recognised by a Jewish audience, and goes on to describe three types of eunuch he notes as being: * Born that way * Involuntary * Voluntary Such comments would be reasonably offensive to Jewish audiences who would consider emasculated men to be outside the community (Deut 23:1), and voluntary castration as morally depraved. Eunuchs often held positions of authority in government as they were seen as more trustworthy, less aggressive, and undistracted by family commitments. The term may sometimes have been generalised to describe trusted court officials who were not physically castrated. Eunuchs often served as passive sexual partners to other males. Those castrated after puberty could potentially engage in sexual activity without risk of pregnancy. As demonstrated by this example, our modern categories of gender and sexuality differ considerably from those of ancient civilisations, making it hard to draw parallels and translate ancient language into contemporary terminology. ### Political One of the problems facing modern Bible readers is our difficulty recognising how politically scandalous, edgy, or even dangerous a seemingly innocuous turn-of-phrase really is. An example of this is the phrase _"Jesus is Lord"_.[^lord] Declaring Jesus as Lord was an extremely emotive statement, perhaps similar to how "President Jesus" sounds to modern ears. To Jews, _"Jesus is Lord"_ was blasphemy. Similarly, Christians who refused to declare _"Caesar is Lord"_ and demonstrate their allegiance to the empire were punished by death. Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna was martyred around 155<small>CE</small> for his refusal to affirm the imperial cult by declaring Caesar as Lord. > [!quote] > And \[Polycarp\] was met by Herod the captain of police ... saying, ‘Why what harm is there in saying, Caesar is Lord, and offering incense’, with more to this effect, ‘and saving thyself?’" &mdash; The Martyrdom of Polycarp 8.2 Today our familiarity with the phrase "Lord Jesus" can cause us to overlook how subversive and revolutionary the early Christian movement was. Understanding more of the political and social context helps us to hear the same descriptions of Jesus in a new (or perhaps more properly, old) light. > [!image] > ![[context-polycarp.png]] > Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, is burned at the stake (Byzantine Fresco) ### Economic Monetary values and measures are often recorded in the Bible text, and are occasionally a key part of the narrative. > [!bible] > "But Elisha said, “Hear the word of the Lord: thus says the Lord, Tomorrow about this time a measure of choice meal shall be sold for a shekel, and two measures of barley for a shekel, at the gate of Samaria.”" &mdash; 2 Kings 7:1 (NRSV) In a previous verse (2 Ki 6:25) the economic value of a donkey's head was valued at 80 shekels, and a quarter of a cab of doves' dung 5 shekels. Clearly these prices are exorbitant, and a dramatic reduction in price is being foretold.[^shekels] While we are able to pick up cues regarding the relative value from the narrative, the specific measures can be oblique. A "cab" is a measure of about 400 grams (14 ounces), and a shekel weighs about 11.4 grams [^weight]. Today 5 shekels of silver (let's say 57 grams) would be worth around $45 USD.[^silver] However, even this equivalence is problematic because it does not consider the comparative availability of silver, wages, or wider commodity values. Interpretation of economic context can be particularly difficult.[^economic] > [!warning] > **On "Dove's dung"** &mdash; As an aside, the term _dove's dung_ may be idiomatic and an example of high-context communication. Specifically, it may describe a type of cheap seed pod which were commonly fed to cattle. This interpretation is given by some Bibles (e.g. NIV), alongside explanatory notes. It is easy for us to "read over" measures and potentially miss the impact of a statement. Jesus describes a debtor owing "ten thousand talents" (Matt 18:24) which is an utterly ludicrous amount of money. For comparison, Herod the Great’s annual tax revenue was about 800 talents. Ten thousand talents is probably more than all the money in circulation at the time.[^10k] ### Religious The Bible contains many allusions to religious practises with little (if any) explanation of the ritual being referenced. These can appear obscure to modern readers, especially when rendered in archaic English: > [!bible] > "And say, Thus saith the Lord GOD; Woe to the women that sew pillows to all armholes, and make kerchiefs upon the head of every stature to hunt souls!" &mdash; Ezekiel 13:18a (KJV, _Ed: specifically chosen because it is so impenetrable here_) From this passage it is extremely difficult to understand what exactly the women in question were doing to receive such a rebuke, though participation in some kind of social or ritual prophetic divination appears to be involved. However, knowing that magical knots are described in Babylonian books of incantations offers some insight into the situation that Ezekiel is called to address. Written descriptions of amulets tied into netted veils provide the basis for casting the women as "hunters". We do not always have access to religious context to help understand a passage. In the law, the rationale for prohibitions against cooking a lamb in its mother's milk[^lamb] (Ex 23:19; 34:26), tattoos (Lev 19:28), and cutting hair in a specific way (Lev 19:27) are reasonably opaque to us today, though may have some association with heathen religious practise. ## Disputing context Introducing _context_ as a factor in interpretation may be considered controversial for those who hold to the reformation doctrine of _Sola scriptura_, an interpretive principle that arose as a critique of Catholic dominance and authority. These ideas developed from the experience of church application and ritual becoming increasingly distant from the text and meaning: alleged infallible ecclesiastical authority and sacred tradition was prioritised when it contradicted the meaning of scripture). As an interpretive lens or "framework", this topic is discussed in [Experience &#8594; Sola scriptura](/en/experience#sola-scriptura). Respecting sources of context outside the Bible can be seen as a slippery slope which wrests interpretive authority from each individual and back into the hands of a new scholarly priesthood, and is therefore regarded with suspicion. Two points perhaps help to alleviate this concern are respectfully submitted: 1. The Bible authorises these contexts by using them, and is therefore still the overall authority. 2. Appropriately translated, the basis of faith in Jesus, Son of God, can be determined by a literate reader with little contextual data outside the scripture itself. The nuance to this latter point is that the basis of faith (a.k.a. _what must I ==know== to be saved?_) is potentially a considerably lower bar than many established denominational boundaries today. ## Summary 1. As today, communication in ancient cultures is frequently "high context" with unwritten social rules, expectations, and shared knowledge which are assumed by Bible writers. 2. We can learn much from sources outside the Bible to enrich our understanding of the text, helping us interpret better. 3. Attempts to interpret scripture in isolation are subject to limitations of translation and education, though minimal capability of both can establish the basics of Jesus' role and example. Having understood the wider context of the people and society in which the Bible was written we find ourselves in a much better place to draw conclusions about what these writings meant. Find out about this in the next section: [[Meaning]]. ## Appendix ### Bibliography - Smith, J. (1992). _The New Treasury of Scripture Knowledge_. Thomas Nelson. (Amazon [UK](https://www.amazon.co.uk/Treasury-Scripture-Knowledge-Easy-Use/dp/0840776942) | [US](https://www.amazon.com/New-Treasury-Scripture-Knowledge/dp/0785212272), [Logos](https://www.logos.com/product/1214/the-new-treasury-of-scripture-knowledge)). - O'Brien, B. & Richards, E. (2012). _Misreading Scripture with Western Eyes: Removing Cultural Blinders to Better Understand the Bible_. IVP USA. (Amazon [UK](https://www.amazon.co.uk/Misreading-Scripture-Western-Randolph-Richards/dp/0830837825) | [US](https://www.amazon.com/Misreading-Scripture-Western-Eyes-Understand-ebook/dp/B00BL3JXYE), [IVP](https://www.ivpress.com/misreading-scripture-with-western-eyes), [Logos](https://www.logos.com/product/36277/misreading-scripture-with-western-eyes-removing-cultural-blinders-to-better-understand-the-bible)). - Keener, C. & Walton, J. (2017). _Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible: Bringing to Life the Ancient World of Scripture (NIV)_. Zondervan. (Amazon [UK](https://www.amazon.co.uk/Cultural-Backgrounds-Personal-Imitation-Leather/dp/0310447844) | [US](https://www.amazon.com/NIV-Cultural-Backgrounds-Study-Bible/dp/0310431581), [Zondervan](https://www.zondervan.com/9780310431589/niv-cultural-backgrounds-study-bible-hardcover-red-letter/), [Logos](https://www.logos.com/product/144554/niv-cultural-backgrounds-study-bible-notes)). - Bailey, K. (2008). _Jesus through Middle Eastern Eyes: Cultural Studies in the Gospels_. IVP. (Amazon [UK](https://www.amazon.co.uk/Jesus-Through-Middle-Eastern-Eyes/dp/0281059756/) | [US](https://www.amazon.com/Jesus-Through-Middle-Eastern-Eyes/dp/0830825681/), [IVP](https://www.ivpress.com/jesus-through-middle-eastern-eyes), [Logos](https://www.logos.com/product/36458/jesus-through-middle-eastern-eyes-cultural-studies-in-the-gospels)). - Pilch, J. (2012). _A Cultural Handbook to the Bible_. Eerdmans. (Amazon [UK](https://www.amazon.co.uk/Cultural-Handbook-Bible-John-Pilch/dp/0802867200) | [US](https://www.amazon.com/Cultural-Handbook-Bible-John-Pilch/dp/0802867200), [Eerdmans](https://www.eerdmans.com/Products/6720/a-cultural-handbook-to-the-bible.aspx), [Logos](https://www.logos.com/product/50008/a-cultural-handbook-to-the-bible)). ### Notes [^tsk]: The _Treasury of Scriptural Knowledge_ (see Bibliography) is one of the most expansive attempts to catalogue cross-references in the Bible containing a data set of around 800,000 entries. The [Open Bible project](http://www.openbible.info/labs/cross-references/) contains around 340,000 cross-references (and an interesting visualisation). [^bppatterns]: The term "Design Patterns" is typically used of [software](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_design_pattern), though extensively used for its expanatory power in the Bible Project videos such as _Design Patterns in Biblical Narrative_ ([YouTube](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rkqsQpck8YU)). [^lamb]: An exploration of possible meanings for this passage can be found on [Living Faith](http://living-faith.org/2018/05/24/cooking-a-young-goat-in-its-mothers-milk/). [^lord]: Rom 10:9 is probably the key verse for "Jesus is Lord". The Roman imperial cry of "Kyrios Kaisar" (Caesar is Lord) contrasts with "Kyrios Iēsous" (Jesus is Lord). _Kyrios_ is applied to Jesus in many passages: Acts 9:10; 11:20; 1 Cor 12:3; Col 2:6; Php 2:11; 1 Pet 3:15. [^moses]: It isn't clear whether the woman described in Numbers 12:1 is Zipporah, the Midianite daughter of Reuel (Ex 2:16-22), or another. There is a hint in the parallelism of Hab 3:7 that the terms "Midianite" and "Cush" have some analogous characteristic (perhaps skin colour). [^race]: Hays, J.D. (2003) From Every People and Nation: A Biblical Theology of Race, New Studies in Biblical Theology. IVP. pp. 88–103. [^gender]: While the point of this section is to highlight the difficulties of translating these ideas, a general guide is perhaps that natural eunuchs refers to intersex and possibly asexual individuals, the second to forced physical mutilation through political or social pressure, and the third to those who voluntarily remain unmarried. The context (Mat 19:8-10) is a commentary on divorce, and the desirability of marriage. [^shekels]: The shekel is a unit of weight which was also used in transactions. For comparison, a live horse sold for 150 shekels in 1 Kings 10:29. [^weight]: "Cab": Keener, C. S., & Walton, J. H. (Eds.). (2016). NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible: Bringing to Life the Ancient World of Scripture. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. "Shekel": Omanson, R. L., & Ellington, J. E. (2008). A Handbook on 1 & 2 Kings. (P. Clarke, S. Brown, L. Dorn, & D. Slager, Eds.) (Vol. 1–2). New York: United Bible Societies. Taken from both resources explanations of Commentary on 2 Kings 6:25. [^silver]: For an up-to-date valuation, visit a [live silver price calculator](https://www.calculateme.com/precious-metals/silver/weight/57-grams). [^economic]: A discussion of factors relating to economic context is provided by: Nam, Roger S., "Economics and the Bible" (2013). Faculty Publications - Portland Seminary. 114. ([Link](https://digitalcommons.georgefox.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1113&context=gfes)). [^10k]: Keener, C. S., & Walton, J. H., eds. (2016). NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible: Bringing to Life the Ancient World of Scripture (p. 1648). Zondervan.